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basal stump of the Piper methysticum plant in water
<br />(Figure 1). The resultant slightly peppery earthy fla-
<br />voured drink produces a mild relaxant soporific effect
<br />(Aporosa and Tomlinson, 2014). Six key psychoactive
<br />compounds called kavalaetones have been identified as
<br />responsible for kava's pharmacological effect. These act
<br />on receptors in the central nervous system, causing a
<br />slight numbing and slowing in the response time in
<br />muscles, limbs and the brain (Singh, 2009).
<br />Kava also plays a significant role in traditional medi-
<br />ans This is best summarized by Lebot and Cabamm
<br />(1988) who present a valuable table unnamed from
<br />across the Pacific in which they list symptoms and the
<br />appropriate kava preparation method for each condition
<br />(23-29). These include mild local anaesthetic and analgesic
<br />efYects, and antifungal and antibacterial action (Singh,
<br />2009). Kava's efficacy as an anxiolytic, used in the treat-
<br />ment of generalized anxiety disorder, has been recognized
<br />by contemporary pharmacology (Blades, 2016; Starts
<br />et al., 2013), as has its use as an alternative to hormone
<br />replacement therapy (HRT) for women (Braun and
<br />Cohen, 2010; Cagnacei et al., 2003). More recently kava
<br />has been used in cancer research, specifically ovarian,
<br />bladder, colon, lung cancer and leukaemia (Lim, 2016).
<br />While the medicinal benefits of kava have been widely
<br />reported, them is also increased interest in kava as a roc-
<br />reational drink and alternative to alcohol, to the point that
<br />it is now being consumed in franchized bar settings in the
<br />USA (Showman et al., 2015; Wofir i, 2018) In some
<br />bars, kava is mixed with other substances to potentiate
<br />effects, a practice several medical professionals
<br />have voiced concern over due to risks associated
<br />with `drug interaction' (Addiction Resource, 2019).
<br />However, kava's increased popularity has been matched
<br />by kava suspicion, myth and misreporting, to the point
<br />that the Pasifika Medical Association (PMA) was obliged
<br />to make this a theme within their 2016 annual conference.
<br />'+.ova drink codu:4
<br />Archaeologists, linguists and botanists believe kava on-
<br />ginated in northern Vanuatu approximately 3000 years
<br />Science, Policy and Low
<br />ago (Lebot et al., 1992). It is thought that the spread of
<br />kava followed early migrational trade mutes as far west
<br />as Papua New Guinea, to Hawaii in the east, and
<br />Amearoa New Zealand in the south where it failed to
<br />grow (Crowley, 1994). As Lebot and Levesque (1989)
<br />explain: `for kava, dispersal of vegetative propagules by
<br />wind or bird is impossible, [and] the plant therefore
<br />owes its survival entirely to human distribution of
<br />stem cuttings' (234). Together with kava's use in indi-
<br />genous medicine (Lebot and Cabalion, 1988), the plant
<br />in both its raw and drinkable form play significant roles
<br />in traditional practice, being widely used to mark life
<br />events from birth to death (Aporosa, 20196). In a
<br />number of the Island nations such as Pohnpei
<br />(Micronesia), Vanuatu, Fiji, Tonga and Samoa, much
<br />of that traditional use remains, whereas in other areas
<br />such as Te An Maohi (the greater Rarotongan island
<br />group), French Polynesia and Hawaii, colonial contact
<br />and missionizetion saw kava use reduced and in some
<br />cases eliminated altogether (Aporosa, 2014).
<br />Today kava has shifted to the Pacific diaspora. As
<br />Pasifikanst have continued to use kava in their now
<br />home environments, they have introduced new user
<br />groups to this iconic drink. In most cases, these new
<br />non-Pasifika kava users employ kava purely for recre-
<br />ation, for the purpose of relaxation and/or as a medi-
<br />cine, namely to reduce anxiety and facilitate sleep.
<br />However, there are others who have drawn on kava's
<br />traditional meanings and sociocultural function to both
<br />enhance and expand their sense of identity through the
<br />practice of kava drinking (Aporosa, 2015).
<br />Change has also occurred among indigenous users.
<br />For instance, extremes between traditional and urban
<br />contemporary styles of kava consumption can be found
<br />(Corcoran and Brynjolffssen, 2008). Whereas urban
<br />contemporary niVarmatu kava drinkers tend to stand
<br />and drink, urban Fijian and Tongan kava users, includ-
<br />ing those in diaspora, tend to mix and serve the bever-
<br />age from a designated bowl to drinkers sitting on
<br />woven mats on the floor (Figure 2). The latter is
<br />argued to have greater adherence with Pasifika cultural
<br />values, in which some believe it is disrespectful to stand
<br />Dr, pounded kava root being mix for drinking (photographer: Todd Henry, 2019).
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